Proof of Stake
Also known as: PoS
Proof of stake is a blockchain consensus mechanism in which validators lock up (stake) the native asset to propose and attest to blocks.
What is the difference between proof of stake and proof of work?
Proof of work secures a blockchain through computing power and electricity: miners compete to solve puzzles. Proof of stake secures it through locked-up tokens that can be destroyed if a validator cheats. This makes PoS far less energy-intensive. Ethereum estimates that its switch to PoS in September 2022 cut its energy use by about 99.95%. Ethereum also argues that attacks cost more under PoS, because an attacker's stake can be slashed. PoW hardware, by contrast, can be reused.
Key facts
| Predicate | Value | Source |
|---|---|---|
| Definition | A way for validators to prove they have put something of value into the network that can be destroyed if they act dishonestly | [1]officialProof-of-stake (PoS)ethereum.org |
| First proposed | August 2012 paper 'PPCoin: Peer-to-Peer Crypto-Currency with Proof-of-Stake' by Sunny King (pseudonym) and Scott Nadal | [2]otherPeercoinWikipedia |
| First implementation | Peercoin, launched 12 August 2012, which uses a hybrid of proof of work and proof of stake | [2]otherPeercoinWikipedia |
| Early formal security analysis | Kiayias, Russell, David, Oliynykov, 'Ouroboros: A Provably Secure Proof-of-Stake Blockchain Protocol', CRYPTO 2017, pp. 357–388, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-63688-7_12 | [3]academicOuroboros: A Provably Secure Proof-of-Stake Blockchain Protocol (Advances in Cryptology – CRYPTO 2017, pp. 357–388, doi:10.1007/978-3-319-63688-7_12)University of Edinburgh Research Explorer / Springer |
| Ethereum switch to PoS (The Merge) | 2022-09-15 | [4]officialThe Mergeethereum.org |
| Estimated energy reduction on Ethereum after the switch | ~99.95 %as of Sep 15, 2022 | [4]officialThe Mergeethereum.org |
| Ethereum validator deposit | 32 ETH | [1]officialProof-of-stake (PoS)ethereum.org |
| Ethereum slot and epoch length | 12-second slots; 32 slots per epoch; one proposer per slot plus a randomly chosen committee | [1]officialProof-of-stake (PoS)ethereum.org |
| Finality rule (Ethereum Casper-FFG) | A checkpoint becomes final when 2/3 of staked ETH votes for it; reverting a finalized block would cost an attacker at least 1/3 of all staked ETH | [1]officialProof-of-stake (PoS)ethereum.org |
| Slashable offenses (Ethereum) | Proposing two different blocks for the same slot; surround voting; double voting. Slashed validators are removed over a 36-day period, with a correlation penalty on day 18 | [5]officialProof-of-stake rewards and penaltiesethereum.org |
| US regulatory status (SEC staff view) | SEC Division of Corporation Finance staff said that some protocol staking (solo, self-custodial via a third party, and qualifying custodial staking) is not an offer or sale of securities. This is a staff view with no legal forceas of May 29, 2025 | [6]governmentStatement on Certain Protocol Staking ActivitiesU.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, Division of Corporation Finance |
Overview
In proof-of-stake, validators are chosen to create blocks in proportion to their staked assets and can be penalized (slashed) for misbehavior. It replaces energy-intensive mining used in proof-of-work.
References
Independent source ratio 33% (2/6) · self-published 3- Level C · officialOfficial claimProof-of-stake (PoS) — ethereum.org · accessed Nov 10, 2026 · Evidence page
- Level E · otherPeercoin — Wikipedia · accessed Nov 10, 2026 · Evidence page
- Level C · academicOuroboros: A Provably Secure Proof-of-Stake Blockchain Protocol (Advances in Cryptology – CRYPTO 2017, pp. 357–388, doi:10.1007/978-3-319-63688-7_12) — University of Edinburgh Research Explorer / Springer · accessed Nov 11, 2026 · Evidence page
- Level C · officialOfficial claimThe Merge — ethereum.org · accessed Nov 10, 2026 · Evidence page
- Level C · officialOfficial claimProof-of-stake rewards and penalties — ethereum.org · accessed Nov 11, 2026 · Evidence page
- Level A · governmentStatement on Certain Protocol Staking Activities — U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, Division of Corporation Finance · accessed Nov 10, 2026 · Evidence page